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![\"\"](\"https:\/\/marxy.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/Unknown_painter_-_Heraclitus2.jpg\")
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![\"\"](\"https:\/\/marxy.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/karl-marx_Image_Pixabay.jpg\")
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\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0647\u0627 \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0637\u0648\u064a\u0644 \u064a\u0645\u062a\u062f \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u063a\u0631\u064a\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u0627\u0645\u0649\u060c \u0645\u0639 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0643\u0633\u0627\u063a\u0648\u0631\u0627\u0633 (\u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a 500 – 428 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062f) \u0648\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0648\u0642\u0631\u064a\u0637\u0633 (\u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a 460 – 370 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062f). \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0646\u0647\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0629\u060c \u062e\u0641\u062a\u062a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0637\u064a\u0644\u0629 \u062d\u0642\u0628\u0629 \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629 \u0643\u0627\u0645\u0644\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0641\u0642\u0637 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0646\u0647\u0636\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0643\u0631 \u0639\u0646\u062f \u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0635\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0633\u0637\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u064a\u062d\u064a\u0629 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0647\u0646\u0627\u0643 \u0625\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0621 \u0644\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u064a\u0639\u064a\u0629. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0625\u0646\u062c\u0644\u062a\u0631\u0627 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u0628\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0645\u0648\u0637\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u0629. \u0648\u0641\u064a \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062f\u062f \u0643\u062a\u0628 \u0645\u0627\u0631\u0643\u0633: “\u0625\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u064a\u0642\u064a \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u062c\u0644\u064a\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0647\u0648 \u0628\u064a\u0643\u0648\u0646”. \u0648\u0642\u062f \u062a\u0645 \u062a\u0646\u0638\u064a\u0645 \u0648\u062a\u0637\u0648\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u0631\u0627\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0633 \u0628\u064a\u0643\u0648\u0646 (1561 – 1626) \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u062a\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0633 \u0647\u0648\u0628\u0632 (1588 – 1679)\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0628\u062f\u0648\u0631\u0647 \u0637\u0648\u0631 \u0623\u0641\u0643\u0627\u0631\u0647 \u062c\u0648\u0646 \u0644\u0648\u0643 (1632 – 1704). \u0644\u0642\u062f \u062a\u0648\u0635\u0644 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062e\u064a\u0631 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0639\u0644 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0645\u0643\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0645\u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0641\u0643\u064a\u0631. \u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0628\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0641\u0629 \u0623\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0643\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0634\u0631\u064a \u0642\u062f \u062a\u0632\u0627\u0645\u0646\u062a \u0645\u0639 \u0635\u0639\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645\u060c \u0648\u062e\u0627\u0635\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0643\u0627 \u0648\u0639\u0644\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0643 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628. \u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0647\u0624\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u0643\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0638\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0628\u062f\u0648\u0631\u0647\u0645 \u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u0627 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0631\u0633\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0639\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0645\u0646 \u0639\u0634\u0631\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0628\u0631\u0632\u0647\u0645 \u0631\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0647 \u062f\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0631\u062a (1596 – 1650).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u0634\u0643\u0644\u062a \u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u062a\u0647\u0645 \u0648\u0639\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0646\u064a\u062a\u0647\u0645 \u0639\u0642\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u0631\u0649 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1789. \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0643\u0646 \u0647\u0624\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u0643\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u064a\u0639\u062a\u0631\u0641\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0623\u064a \u0633\u0644\u0637\u0629 \u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c\u064a\u0629. \u0641\u0642\u062f \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0643\u0644 \u0634\u064a\u0621 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0647\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u064a\u0639\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0633\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0639\u0631\u0636\u0629 \u0644\u0623\u0634\u062f \u0623\u0646\u0648\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0642\u062f. \u0644\u0642\u062f \u0635\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u0644 \u0645\u0642\u064a\u0627\u0633 \u0643\u0644 \u0634\u064a\u0621.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062f\u0627\u0641\u0639 \u0639\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0628\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0645\u0631\u0627\u0631 \u0647\u0648\u0644\u0628\u0627\u062e (1723 – 1789) \u0648\u0647\u064a\u0644\u0641\u064a\u062a\u064a\u0648\u0633\u060c \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629. \u064a\u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0647\u0648\u0644\u0628\u0627\u062e: “\u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u062d\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0627\u0626\u0644\u0629 \u0644\u0643\u0644 \u0634\u064a\u0621 \u0645\u0648\u062c\u0648\u062f\u060c \u0641\u0641\u064a \u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u062a\u0638\u0647\u0631 \u0644\u0646\u0627 \u0641\u0642\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0623\u062b\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0643\u0629. \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0647\u0648 \u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0627 \u0647\u0648 \u0645\u0648\u062c\u0648\u062f \u0648\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0639\u0631\u0636 \u0633\u0648\u0649 \u0633\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0629 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u062d\u062f\u0648\u062f\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0635\u0644\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0628\u0627\u0628 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0639\u0627\u0644\u061b \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0628\u0627\u0628 \u0646\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0647\u0627\u060c \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u062a\u0636\u0631\u0628 \u062d\u0648\u0627\u0633\u0646\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0648\u0631\u061b \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0622\u062e\u0631 \u0644\u0627 \u0646\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0647\u0627 \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u062a\u0624\u062b\u0631 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0646\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0639\u0648\u0627\u0642\u0628 \u0628\u0639\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u062a\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0627 \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0628\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649”.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0646\u0639\u0643\u0627\u0633\u0627 \u0623\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0648\u0644\u0648\u062c\u064a\u0627 \u0644\u0646\u0636\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0636\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0646\u064a\u0633\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064e\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0637\u0644\u0642\u0629. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0647\u062c\u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0634\u0631\u0633\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0648\u0644\u0648\u062c\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645. \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0645 \u062a\u0633\u0641\u0631 \u0645\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u0644 \u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0625\u0644\u0627 \u0639\u0646 \u0645\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a\u0629. \u0644\u0642\u062f \u0623\u0635\u0628\u062d\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0650\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u062d\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646. \u0645\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642 \u0623\u0645\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0648\u0633\u064a\u0637\u0631\u0629 \u0623\u0634\u0643\u0627\u0644 \u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0635\u0629. \u0642\u0627\u0644 \u062f\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0633 \u062f\u064a\u062f\u0631\u0648 (1713 – 1784): “\u0623\u0632\u0645\u0646\u0629 \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0638\u0631\u0648\u0641 \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641\u0629”.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u0625\u0644\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u063a\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645\u0627 \u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0641\u0642\u062f \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062c\u0627\u0645\u062f\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u063a\u0627\u064a\u0629. \u0647\u0627\u062c\u0645 \u0647\u0624\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u062f\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0646\u064a\u0633\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0631\u0648\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u062c\u0631\u062f \u062c\u0633\u062f \u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u062c\u0645\u064a\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a\u0648\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0634\u064a\u0627\u0621 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0636\u0648\u064a\u0629. \u0646\u0638\u0631\u0648\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0622\u0644\u0629 \u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u062a\u0639\u0642\u064a\u062f\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0626\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649. \u0648\u0648\u0641\u0642\u0627 \u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0633 \u062f\u064a\u062f\u0631\u0648\u060c \u0641\u064a \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u0647 \u0645\u0639 \u062f\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0628\u064a\u0631 “\u0646\u062d\u0646 \u0622\u0644\u0627\u062a \u062a\u0645\u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0625\u062d\u0633\u0627\u0633\u0627 \u0648\u0630\u0627\u0643\u0631\u0629”.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u0625\u0646 \u0623\u0635\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0629 \u2013\u0623\u064a \u0627\u0643\u062a\u0634\u0627\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0636\u0648\u0639\u064a\u0629- \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u064a\u0646\u060c \u064a\u062a\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u062a\u0623\u062b\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u064a\u0639\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u062d\u0648\u0627\u0633\u0646\u0627. \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u0627\u0643\u0628 \u0648\u0645\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u062f\u0627\u062e\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0645\u0633\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u064a\u0639\u0629 \u0646\u0641\u0633\u0647\u0627 \u0623\u0634\u064a\u0627\u0621 \u062b\u0627\u0628\u062a\u0629. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u060c \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0647\u0645\u060c \u064a\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u0639\u0629\u060c \u062d\u064a\u062b \u0643\u0644 \u0634\u064a\u0621 \u0644\u0647 \u0645\u0643\u0627\u0646\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0628\u062a\u060c \u0648\u062d\u064a\u062b \u064a\u0623\u062a\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0627\u0641\u0639 \u0644\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c. \u0648\u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u063a\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0647\u062c \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0641\u0625\u0646\u0647 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0628\u0631\u0645\u062a\u0647 \u0645\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0643\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0648\u0641\u0634\u0644 \u0641\u064a \u0641\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0627\u0642\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a \u0644\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645. \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0633\u062a\u0637\u0639 \u0641\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0631\u0647 \u0633\u064a\u0631\u0648\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0645\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u062a\u062e\u0636\u0639 \u0644\u062a\u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0633\u062a\u0645\u0631. \u0623\u062f\u0649 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0639\u0641 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u0642\u0633\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0627\u0626\u0641 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a \u0648\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0643\u0627\u0631. \u0648\u0642\u062f \u0641\u062a\u062d\u062a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0646\u0627\u0626\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0628 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u062b\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\u0628\u064a\u0646\u0645\u0627 \u062a\u0628\u0646\u0649 \u0622\u062e\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0648\u062c\u0647\u0629 \u0646\u0638\u0631 \u0623\u062d\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 (Monist) \u0645\u0641\u0627\u062f\u0647\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062f \u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0631\u0648\u062d\u0627 \u062e\u0627\u0644\u0635\u0629 \u0623\u0648 \u0645\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u062e\u0627\u0644\u0635\u0629. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0633\u0628\u064a\u0646\u0648\u0632\u0627 \u0623\u0648\u0644 \u0645\u0646 \u0648\u0636\u0639 \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645. \u0648\u0628\u064a\u0646\u0645\u0627 \u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0627\u062c\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0625\u0644\u0647\u060c \u0641\u0625\u0646\u0647 \u0627\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645\u0627 \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062f\u0627 \u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0627 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0645\u0644.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
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\u0643\u062a\u0628 \u0625\u0646\u062c\u0644\u0632:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
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\u0648\u0628\u0635\u0631\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0631 \u0639\u0646 \u0633\u062a\u064a\u0641\u0646 \u062c\u064a\u0647 \u063a\u0648\u0644\u062f \u0648\u0646\u064a\u0644\u0633 \u0625\u0644\u062f\u0631\u062f\u062c\u060c \u0641\u0625\u0646 \u0631\u064a\u062a\u0634\u0627\u0631\u062f \u0644\u064a\u0641\u064a\u0646\u0632 \u0648\u0631\u064a\u062a\u0634\u0627\u0631\u062f \u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646\u062a\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0630\u0627\u0646 \u064a\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0646 \u0646\u0641\u0633\u064a\u0647\u0645\u0627 \u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u062f\u064a\u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u064a\u0643\u064a\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0642\u062f \u0643\u062a\u0628\u0627 \u0647\u0645\u0627 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627 \u0639\u0646 \u062a\u0637\u0628\u064a\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u064a\u0643 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u062c\u0627\u0644 \u0639\u0644\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0648\u0644\u0648\u062c\u064a\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628\u0647\u0645\u0627 The Dialectical Biologist\u060c \u062d\u064a\u062b \u0642\u0627\u0644\u0627:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
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\u0643\u062a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0631\u062e\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0637\u062d\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 “\u0633\u0628\u0628\u0647\u0627” \u0627\u063a\u062a\u064a\u0627\u0644 \u0648\u0644\u064a \u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0645\u0633\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0633\u0631\u0627\u064a\u064a\u0641\u0648. \u0644\u064a\u0633 \u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0627\u0642\u0639\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0631\u0643\u0633\u064a \u0644\u064a\u0633\u062a \u0633\u0648\u0649 \u062d\u0627\u062f\u062b \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u060c \u0628\u0645\u0639\u0646\u0649 \u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062f\u0641\u0629 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0628\u0645\u062b\u0627\u0628\u0629 \u0630\u0631\u064a\u0639\u0629\u060c \u0623\u0648 \u0645\u062d\u0641\u0632\u060c \u0644\u0644\u0635\u0631\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0639\u0644 \u062d\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0627 \u0628\u0633\u0628\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0646\u0627\u0642\u0636\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629. \u0625\u0630\u0627 \u0644\u0648 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u062a\u0644 \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0646\u062c\u062d \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0647\u0645\u062a\u0647\u060c \u0623\u0648 \u0644\u0648 \u0623\u0646 \u0648\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0647\u062f \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0648\u0644\u062f \u0623\u0635\u0644\u0627\u060c \u0644\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0628 \u0633\u062a\u0628\u0642\u0649 \u062d\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0628\u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062c\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0628\u0644\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0648 \u062a\u0644\u0643. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0633\u062a\u0639\u0628\u0631 \u0639\u0646 \u0646\u0641\u0633\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 “\u062d\u0627\u062f\u062b” \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
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(\u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a 460 – 370 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062f). \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0646\u0647\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0629\u060c \u062e\u0641\u062a\u062a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0637\u064a\u0644\u0629 \u062d\u0642\u0628\u0629 \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629 \u0643\u0627\u0645\u0644\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0641\u0642\u0637 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0646\u0647\u0636\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0643\u0631 \u0639\u0646\u062f \u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0635\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0633\u0637\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u064a\u062d\u064a\u0629 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0647\u0646\u0627\u0643 \u0625\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0621 \u0644\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645 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\u0647\u0648\u0628\u0632 (1588 – 1679)\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0628\u062f\u0648\u0631\u0647 \u0637\u0648\u0631 \u0623\u0641\u0643\u0627\u0631\u0647 \u062c\u0648\u0646 \u0644\u0648\u0643 (1632 – 1704). \u0644\u0642\u062f \u062a\u0648\u0635\u0644 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062e\u064a\u0631 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0639\u0644 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0645\u0643\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0645\u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0641\u0643\u064a\u0631. \u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0628\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0641\u0629 \u0623\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0643\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0634\u0631\u064a \u0642\u062f \u062a\u0632\u0627\u0645\u0646\u062a \u0645\u0639 \u0635\u0639\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645\u060c \u0648\u062e\u0627\u0635\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0643\u0627 \u0648\u0639\u0644\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0643 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628. \u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0647\u0624\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u0643\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0638\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0628\u062f\u0648\u0631\u0647\u0645 \u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u0627 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0631\u0633\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0639\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0645\u0646 \u0639\u0634\u0631\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0628\u0631\u0632\u0647\u0645 \u0631\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0647 \u062f\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0631\u062a (1596 – 1650).<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u0634\u0643\u0644\u062a \u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u062a\u0647\u0645 \u0648\u0639\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0646\u064a\u062a\u0647\u0645 \u0639\u0642\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u0631\u0649 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1789. \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0643\u0646 \u0647\u0624\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u0643\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u064a\u0639\u062a\u0631\u0641\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0623\u064a \u0633\u0644\u0637\u0629 \u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c\u064a\u0629. \u0641\u0642\u062f \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0643\u0644 \u0634\u064a\u0621 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0647\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u064a\u0639\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0633\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0639\u0631\u0636\u0629 \u0644\u0623\u0634\u062f \u0623\u0646\u0648\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0642\u062f. \u0644\u0642\u062f \u0635\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u0644 \u0645\u0642\u064a\u0627\u0633 \u0643\u0644 \u0634\u064a\u0621.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062f\u0627\u0641\u0639 \u0639\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0628\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0645\u0631\u0627\u0631 \u0647\u0648\u0644\u0628\u0627\u062e (1723 – 1789) \u0648\u0647\u064a\u0644\u0641\u064a\u062a\u064a\u0648\u0633\u060c \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629. \u064a\u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0647\u0648\u0644\u0628\u0627\u062e: “\u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u062d\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0627\u0626\u0644\u0629 \u0644\u0643\u0644 \u0634\u064a\u0621 \u0645\u0648\u062c\u0648\u062f\u060c \u0641\u0641\u064a \u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u062a\u0638\u0647\u0631 \u0644\u0646\u0627 \u0641\u0642\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0623\u062b\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0643\u0629. \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0647\u0648 \u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0627 \u0647\u0648 \u0645\u0648\u062c\u0648\u062f \u0648\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0639\u0631\u0636 \u0633\u0648\u0649 \u0633\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0629 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u062d\u062f\u0648\u062f\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0635\u0644\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0628\u0627\u0628 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0639\u0627\u0644\u061b \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0628\u0627\u0628 \u0646\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0647\u0627\u060c \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u062a\u0636\u0631\u0628 \u062d\u0648\u0627\u0633\u0646\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0648\u0631\u061b \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0622\u062e\u0631 \u0644\u0627 \u0646\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0647\u0627 \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u062a\u0624\u062b\u0631 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0646\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0639\u0648\u0627\u0642\u0628 \u0628\u0639\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u062a\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0627 \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0628\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649”.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0646\u0639\u0643\u0627\u0633\u0627 \u0623\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0648\u0644\u0648\u062c\u064a\u0627 \u0644\u0646\u0636\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0636\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0646\u064a\u0633\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064e\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0637\u0644\u0642\u0629. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0647\u062c\u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0634\u0631\u0633\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0648\u0644\u0648\u062c\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645. \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0645 \u062a\u0633\u0641\u0631 \u0645\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u0644 \u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0625\u0644\u0627 \u0639\u0646 \u0645\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a\u0629. \u0644\u0642\u062f \u0623\u0635\u0628\u062d\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0650\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u062d\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646. \u0645\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642 \u0623\u0645\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0648\u0633\u064a\u0637\u0631\u0629 \u0623\u0634\u0643\u0627\u0644 \u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0635\u0629. \u0642\u0627\u0644 \u062f\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0633 \u062f\u064a\u062f\u0631\u0648 (1713 – 1784): “\u0623\u0632\u0645\u0646\u0629 \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0638\u0631\u0648\u0641 \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641\u0629”.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u0625\u0644\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u063a\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645\u0627 \u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0641\u0642\u062f \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062c\u0627\u0645\u062f\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u063a\u0627\u064a\u0629. \u0647\u0627\u062c\u0645 \u0647\u0624\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u062f\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0646\u064a\u0633\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0631\u0648\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u062c\u0631\u062f \u062c\u0633\u062f \u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u062c\u0645\u064a\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a\u0648\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0634\u064a\u0627\u0621 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<\/figure>\n\n\n\n